Surveillance as a variable explaining why other people’s presence in a park setting affects sense of safety and preferences

Aleksandra Lis; Zalewska Karolina

doi:10.3097/LO.2024.1123

Authors

Aleksandra Lis Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Department of Landscape Architecture, Wrocław, Poland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0464-3770
Zalewska Karolina Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Department of Landscape Architecture, Wrocław, Poland https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4811-7377

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.3097/LO.2024.1123

Keywords:

landscape design, mediation models, privacy, safety, urban parks, social control

Abstract

Research on preferences towards urban parks very rarely takes into account the impact of other people’s presence in a park setting. We examined how the number of people in the vicinity and their distance affect sense of safety and preferences towards park space, and what role surveillance (being seen or heard) plays in these relationships. We analysed the correlations between the variables and the mediating effects. For this purpose, we employed a within-subjects design in which 194 participants evaluated a set of 112 eye-level photographs of park landscapes with regard to perceived safety, landscape preference and surveillance. We calculated how many people were in the field and determined their distance on the basis of photos. We analysed a number of mediation models testing hypotheses about the mediating role of surveillance and safety in the impact of other people’s presence on safety and preferences. Most of the hypotheses presented, and verified by the analysis of indirect effects, were confirmed. The number of people does not affect preferences, but does affect safety, and this explains why the sense of being monitored (being seen or heard) grows along with the number of people present. On the other hand, the influence of distance on preferences is explained by a sequential model — greater distance is associated with less surveillance; in turn, surveillance increases sense of safety, which also leads to stronger preferences.

References

Acuña-Rivera, M., Uzzell, D., & Brown, J. (2011). Perceptions of disorder, risk and safety: The method and framing effects. Psyecology, 2(2), 167-177. https://doi.org/10.1174/217119711795712559

Adinolfi, C., Suárez-Cáceres, G. P., & Carinanos, P. (2014). Relation between visitors’ behaviour and characteristics of green spaces in the city of Granada, south-eastern Spain. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 13(3), 534-542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2014.03.007

Amin, A., Alela, M. A., El-Fiki, S., & Emara, M. (2013). An Examination of Users’ Preference to Physical Edges in Urban Parks, with Reference to Cairo, Egypt. Science Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture. https://doi.org/10.7237/sjcea/298.

Andrews, M., & Gatersleben, B. (2010). Variations in perceptions of danger, fear and preference in a simulated natural environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30(4), 473-481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2010.04.001

Antic, D. (2019). Encouraging social interaction in public spaces through interactive light. Bachelor. Malmö University. Sweden.

Badiora, A. I., & Abiola, O. B. (2017). Quality of life (QoL) of rural dwellers in Nigeria: a subjective assessment of residents of Ikeji-Arakeji, Osun-state. Annals of Ecology and Environmental Science, 1(1), 69-75. https://doi.org/10.22259/2637-5338.0101006

Bańka, A. (1985). Psychologiczna struktura projektowa środowiska: studium przestrzeni architektonicznej. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Poznańskiej. Poznań, Polska.

Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of personality and social psychology, 51(6), 1173. https:// .org/10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173

Bedimo-Rung, A. L., Mowen, A. J., & Cohen, D. A. (2005). The significance of parks to physical activity and public health: a conceptual model. American journal of preventive medicine, 28(2), 159-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2004.10.024

Bellair, P. E. (2000). Informal surveillance and street crime: A complex relationship. Criminology, 38(1), 137-170. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00886.x

Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (1981). Environmental criminology. Sage Publications. Beverly Hills, CA.

Carles, J. L., Barrio, I. L., & De Lucio, J. V. (1999). Sound influence on landscape values. Landscape and Urban Planning, 43(4), 191-200. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(98)00112-1

Cassels, D., & Guaralda, M. (2013). Environment and interaction: A study in social activation of the public realm. In_Bo: ricerche e progetti per il territorio, la citta e l’architettura, 4(1), 104-113.

Chekroun, P., & Brauer, M. (2002). The bystander effect and social control behavior: The effect of the presence of others on people’s reactions to norm violations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32(6), 853-867. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.126

Costanza, R., Fisher, B., Ali, S., Beer, C., Bond, L., Boumans, R., ...& Snapp, R. (2007). Quality of life: An approach integrating opportunities, human needs, and subjective well-being. Ecological Economics, 61(2-3), 267-276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.02.023

Cozens, P. (2008). Crime prevention through environmental design in Western Australia: planning for sustainable urban futures. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 3(3), 272-292. https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP-V3-N3-272-292

Crewe K. (2001). Linear Parks and Urban Neighborhoods: A Study of the Crime Impact of the Boston South-west Corridor. Journal of Urban Design, 6(3), 245-64. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574800120105779

Crowe, T. D., & Zahm, D. L. (1994). Crime prevention through environmental design. Land Development, 22–27.

Farrall, S., Bannister, J., Ditton, J., & Gilchrist, E. (2000). Social psychology and the fear of crime. Re-examining a speculative model. British Journal of Criminology, 40(3), 399-413. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23638939

Fisher, B. S., & May, D. (2009). College students’ crime-related fears on campus: Are fear-provoking cues gendered?. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 25(3), 300-321. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986209335013

Fisher, B. S., & Nasar, J. L. (1992). Fear of crime in relation to three exterior site features: Prospect, refuge, and escape. Environment and Behavior, 24(1), 35-65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916592241002

Gao, T., Liang, H., Chen, Y., & Qiu, L. (2019). Comparisons of landscape preferences through three different perceptual approaches. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(23), 4754. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234754

George, D., & Mallery, P. (2019). IBM SPSS Statistics 26 Step by Step: A Simple Guide and Reference. Routledge. New York.

Gobster, P. H., & Westphal, L. M. (2004). The human dimensions of urban greenways: planning for recreation and related experiences. Landscape and Urban Planning, 68(2-3), 147- 165. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(03)00162-2

Gump, P. V. (1971). The behavior setting: A promising unit for environmental designers. Landscape Architectur, 61(2), 130-134. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44665211 Hall, T. (1969). The Hidden Dimension. Doubleday and co. New York.

Hammitt, W. E. (2002). Urban forests and parks as privacy refuges. Journal of Arboriculture, 28(1), 19-26. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2002.003

Han, J., & Lee, S. (2022). RESIDENT’S Satisfaction in Street Landscape Using the Immersive Virtual Environment-Based Eye-Tracking Technique and Deep Learning Model. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 48, 45-52. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLVIII-4-W4-2022-45-2022

Harris, V., Kendal, D., Hahs, A. K., & Threlfall, C. G. (2018). Green space context and vegetation complexity shape people’s preferences for urban public parks and residential gardens. Landscape Research, 43(1), 150-162. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2017.1302571

Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication monographs, 76(4), 408-420. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750903310360

Hediger, H. (1961). The evolution of territorial behaviour. In S.L. Washburn (Ed.), The Social Life of Early Man (pp. 34-57). Werner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. New York.

Heek, J. V., Arning, K., & Ziefle, M. (2014, October). Safety and privacy perceptions in public spaces: An empirical study on user requirements for city mobility. In International Internet of Things Summit (pp. 97-103). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19743-2_15.

Herzog, T. R., & Bryce, A. G. (2007). Mystery and preference in within-forest settings. Environment and Behavior, 39(6), 779-796. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916506298796

Herzog, T. R., & Kirk, K. M. (2005). Pathway curvature and border visibility as predictors of preference and danger in forest settings. Environment and Behavior, 37(5), 620-639. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916505275306

Herzog, T. R., & Kropscott, L. S. (2004). Legibility, mystery, and visual access as predictors of preference and perceived danger in forest settings without pathways. Environment and Behavior, 36(5), 659-677. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916504264138

Herzog, T. R., & Miller, E. J. (1998). The role of mystery in perceived danger and environmental preference. Environment and Behavior, 30(4), 429-449. https://doi.org/10.1177/001391659803000401.

Hofmann, M., Westermann, J. R., Kowarik, I., & Van der Meer, E. (2012). Perceptions of parks and urban derelict land by landscape planners and residents. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 11(3), 303-312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2012.04.001

Hoyle, H., Jorgensen, A., & Hitchmough, J. D. (2019). What determines how we see nature? Perceptions of naturalness in designed urban green spaces. People and Nature, 1(2), 167-180. https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.19

Hunter, A. (1978). Symbolsof Incivility. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Dallas, Texas.

Ibrahim, F. I., Omar, D., & Nik Mohamad, N. H. (2019). Human Interaction In Urban Open Spaces. Environment- Behaviour Proceedings Journal, 4(10), 188-193. https://doi.org/10.21834/e-bpj.v4i10.1590

Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. Random House. New York.

Jan, G. (2009). Życie między budynkami. Użytkowanie przestrzeni publicznych, Wydawnictwo RAM.

Jennings, V., & Bamkole, O. (2019). The relationship between social cohesion and urban green space: An avenue for health promotion. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030452.

Jorgensen, A., & Anthopoulou, A. (2007). Enjoyment and fear in urban woodlands–Does age make a difference?. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 6(4), 267-278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2007.05.004

Jorgensen, A., Hitchmough, J., & Dunnett, N. (2007). Woodland as a setting for housing-appreciation and fear and the contribution to residential satisfaction and place identity in Warrington New Town, UK. Landscape and Urban Planning, 79(3–4), 273–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.02.015

Jorgensen, A., Hitchmough, J., & Calvert, T. (2002). Woodland spaces and edges: their impact on perception of safety and preference. Landscape and Urban Planning, 60, 135–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(02)00052-X

Junker, B., & Buchecker, M. (2008). Aesthetic preferences versus ecological objectives in river restorations. Landscape and urban planning, 85(3-4), 141-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.11.002

Kaplan, R., & Kaplan, S. (1989). The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective. Cambridge University Press. New York.

LaGrange, R. L., Ferraro, K. F., & Supancic, M. (1992). Perceived risk and fear of crime: Role of social and physical incivilities. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 29, 311–334. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427892029003004

Leino-Kilpi, H., Välimäki, M., Dassen, T., Gasull, M., Lemonidou, C., Scott, A., & Arndt, M. (2001). Privacy: a review of the literature. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 38(6), 663-671. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7489(00)00111-5

Lewis, D. A.& M. G. Maxfield. (1980). Fearin the Neighborhoods: An Investigation of the Impact of Crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 17, 160-89. https://doi. org/10.1177/002242788001700203

Li, C. P. (2018). Exploring the gender difference in fear of crime among older people. International Journal of Management, Economics and Social Sciences, 7, 26-39.

Lindgren, T., & Nilsen, M. R. (2012). Safety in residential areas. Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie, 103(2), 196-208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9663.2011.00679.x

Lis, A., & Anwajler, K. (2004). Privacy in Public Places. Landsc.Archit., 42(1), 4–19.

Lis, A., Burdziński, J., Gubański, J., Walter, E., & Bocheńska- Skałecka, A. (2014). Aktywizacja Przestrzeni Publicznych w Mieście–Ocena Potencjału Miejsc: Część 1-Tereny Nadrzeczne. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego we Wrocławiu. Wrocław, Polska.

Lis, A.,& Iwankowski, P. (2021a). Where Do We Wantto See Other People While Relaxing in a City Park? Visual Relationships with Park Users and Their Impact on Preferences, Safety and Privacy. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 73, 101532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101532

Lis, A., & Iwankowski, P. (2021b). Why Is Dense Vegetation in City Parks Unpopular? The Mediative Role of Sense of Privacy and Safety. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 59, 126988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.126988

Lis, A., Krzemińska, A., Dzikowska, A., & Anwajler, K. (2014). Spatial determinants of safety in a city park as exemplified by Jan III Sobieski Park in Wałbrzych (Poland). Wydawnictwo I-BIS. Wrocław. Poland.

Lis, A., Pardela, Ł., Iwankowski, P., & Haans, A. (2021). The Impact of Plants Offering Cover on Female Students: Perception of Danger in Urban Green Spaces in Crime Hot Spots. Landscape Online, 91, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3097/LO.202191

Lis, A., Weber-Siwirska, M., & Ziemiańska, M. (2016). The Role of Dendroflora in Preventing Crime in Public Green Space. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego we Wrocławiu. Wrocław, Polska.

Lis, A., Zalewska, & K., Iwankowski, P. (2019). Why Do We Choose Fear-Evoking Spots in Parks? The Role of Danger and Privacy in the Model of Dependence between Spatial Attributes and Preference. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 38, 193–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.12.012

Lis, A., Zalewska, K., Iwankowski, P., Betkier, K., Bilska, P., Dudar, V., & Łągiewka, A. (2024). Evaluation of sense of safety and privacy in parks in relation to the topography, the presence of dense vegetation and other people in the area. Landscape and Urban Planning, 242, 104948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2023.104948

Liu, M., & Schroth, O. (2019). Assessment of Aesthetic Preferences in Relation to Vegetation-Created Enclosure in Chinese Urban Parks: A Case Study of Shenzhen Litchi Park. Sustainability, 11(6), 1809. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11061809

Maas, J., Spreeuwenberg, P., Van Winsum-Westra, M., Verheij, R. A., Vries, S., & Groenewegen, P. P. (2009). Is green space in the living environment associated with people’s feelings of social safety?. Environment and Planning A, 41(7), 1763- 1777. https://doi.org/10.1068/a4196

Madge, C. (1997). Public parks and the geography of fear. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 88, 237– 250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9663.1997.tb01601.x

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-96. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0054346

Masoudinejad, S., & Hartig, T. (2020). Window view to the sky as a restorative resource for residents in densely populated cities. Environment and Behavior, 52(4), 401-436. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0013916518807274

Mean, M., & Tims, C. (2005). People Make Places: Growing the Public Life of Cities. Demos.

Molnarova, K., Sklenicka, P., Stiborek, J., Svobodova, K., Salek, M., & Brabec, E. (2012). Visual preferences for wind turbines: Location, numbers and respondent characteristics. Applied Energy, 92, 269–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.11.001

Newell, P. B. (1998). A cross-cultural comparison of privacy definitions and functions: A systems approach. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 18(4), 357-371. https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.1998.0103

Newman, O. (1972). Defensible Space: Crime Prevention Through Urban Design. Macmillan. New York.

Noël, C., Landschoot, L. V., Vanroelen, C., & Gadeyne, S. (2021). Social barriers for the use of available and accessible public green spaces. Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, 3, 744766. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsc.2021.744766

Okunola, S., & Amole, D. (2012). Perception of safety, social participation and vulnerability in an urban neighbourhood, Lagos, Nigeria. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 35, 505-513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.02.116

Özgüner, H., & Kendle, A. D. (2006). Public attitudes towards naturalistic versus designed landscapes in the city of Sheffield (UK). Landscape and Urban Planning, 74(2), 139- 157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2004.10.003

Pardela, Ł., Lis, A., Iwankowski, P., Wilkaniec, A., & Theile, M. (2022). The importance of seeking a win-win solution in shaping the vegetation of military heritage landscapes: The role of legibility, naturalness and user preference. Landscape and Urban Planning, 221, 104377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2022.104377

Patton, J. W. (2000). Protecting privacy in public? Surveillance technologies and the value of public places. Ethics and Information Technology, 2(3), 181-187. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010057606781

Pedersen, D. M. (1997). Psychological functions of privacy. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 17(2), 147-156. https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.1997.0049

Perkins, D. D., Wandersman, A., Rich, R. C., & Taylor, R. B. (1993). The physical environment of street crime: Defensible space, territoriality and incivilities. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 13, 29–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80213-0

Półrolniczak, M., & Kolendowicz, L. (2021). The influence of weather and level of observer expertise on suburban landscape perception. Building and Environment, 202, 108016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108016

Price-Spratlen, T., & Santoro, W. A. (2011). Neighborhood disorder and individual community capacity: How incivilities inform three domains of psychosocial assessment. Sociological Spectrum, 31, 579–605. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2011.589785

Robinson, J. B., Lawton, B. A., Taylor, R. B., & Perkins, D. D. (2003). Multilevel longitudinal impacts of incivilities: Fear of crime, expected safety, and block satisfaction. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 19, 237–274. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024956925170

Robson, S. K. (2008). Scenes from a restaurant: Privacy regulation in stressful situations. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28(4), 373-378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.03.001

Schroeder, H. W., & Anderson, L. M. (1984). Perception of personal safety in urban recreation sites. Journal of Leisure Research, 16(2), 178-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.1984.11969584

Shahzad, S., Calautit, J. K., Hughes, B. R., Satish, B. K., & Rijal, H. B. (2019). Patterns of thermal preference and Visual Thermal Landscaping model in the workplace. Applied Energy, 255, 113674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113674

Skår, M. (2010). Forest dear and forest fear: Dwellers’ relationships to their neighbourhood forest. Landscape and Urban Planning, 98(2), 110-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.07.017

Studer, R. G. (1970). The dynamics of behavior-contingent physical systems. Environmental Pschology: man and his Physical Setting. Holt, Reinhart and Winston. New York.

Taylor, R. B. (2001). Breaking Away from Broken Windows: Baltimore Evidence and Implicationsfor the Nationwide Fight Against Crime, Grime, Fear and Decline, Westview Press. New York.

Taylor, R. B., Shumaker, S. A., & Gottfredson, S. D. (1985). Neighborhood-level links between physical features and local sentiments: Deterioration, fear of crime, and confidence. Journal of Architectural Planning and Research, 2, 261–275.

Van den Berg, A. E., & Vlek, C. A. J. (1998). The influence of planned-change context on the evaluation of natural landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning, 43(1-3), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-2046(98)00102-9

van Rijswijk, L., & Haans, A. (2018). Illuminating for safety: Investigating the role of lighting appraisals on the perception of safety in the urban environment. Environment and Behavior, 50(8), 889-912. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916517718888

Vilalta, C. (2011). Fear of crime in gated communities and apartment buildings: a comparison of housing types and a test of theories. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 26, 107–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10901-011-9211-3

Wang, K., & Taylor, R. B. (2006). Simulated walks through dangerous alleys: Impacts of features and progress on fear. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 26(4), 269-283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2006.07.006

Wilson, J. Q. (1975). Thinking About Crime. Basic Books.

Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. L. (1982). Broken windows: The police and public safety. Atlantic Monthly, 249(3), 29–38. 87.

Yu, K. (1995). Cultural variations in landscape preference: Comparisons among Chinese sub-groups and western design experts. Landscape and Urban Planning, 32(2), 107– 126. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-2046(94)00188-9

Zalewska, K. (2020). Wpływ zagospodarowania terenów nadrzecznych na bezpieczeństwo użytkowników. Dissertation. Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Science. Poland.

Zhao, J., Huang, Y., Wu, H., & Lin, B. (2018). Olfactory Effect on Landscape Preference. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, 17(6), 1483–89. https://doi.org/10.30638/eemj.2018.147